Question
Who was the apostle Paul?
Analysis
What he wrote
Thirteen New Testament letters carry his name. Scholars group them by how widely his authorship is accepted:
| Group | Letters | Status |
|---|---|---|
| Undisputed | Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon | Accepted across the spectrum, including by critical scholarship |
| Disputed | Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians | Traditionally Paul's; some scholars propose a disciple writing in his name |
| Pastoral | 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus | Traditionally Paul's; most contested in critical scholarship, on vocabulary and setting |
Hebrews is anonymous. It has been attributed to Paul historically, but it does not name him, its style differs markedly, and the attribution is not widely held today.
What he taught
- Justification by faith, not by works of the law (Romans 3:28; Galatians 2:16; Ephesians 2:8; Ephesians 2:9).
- Jew and Gentile united in Christ, which was the fighting issue of his ministry (Galatians 3:28; Ephesians 2:14; Romans 1:16).
- The resurrection as the hinge of the faith, without which he says the message is empty (1 Corinthians 15:14; 1 Corinthians 15:17).
- The church as one body with many parts (1 Corinthians 12:12; Romans 12:4; Romans 12:5).
- Love as the greatest thing (1 Corinthians 13:13).
What he suffered
He lists it himself: imprisonments, floggings, three beatings with rods, a stoning, three shipwrecks, danger and hunger and sleeplessness (2 Corinthians 11:23; 2 Corinthians 11:24; 2 Corinthians 11:25; 2 Corinthians 11:26; 2 Corinthians 11:27). He also speaks of a persistent affliction he calls a thorn in the flesh, which God declined to remove (2 Corinthians 12:7; 2 Corinthians 12:8; 2 Corinthians 12:9). What it was is not stated, and guesses are speculation.
What is debated
- His death is not recorded in Scripture. Early church tradition holds he was executed in Rome under Nero, and Clement of Rome refers to his martyrdom, but the Bible ends with him under house arrest (Acts 28:30).
- The "New Perspective on Paul" argues that his opponents' "works of the law" meant boundary markers of Jewish identity rather than moral effort at earning salvation. Traditional Protestant readings dispute that. Our answer on faith alone sets out the views.
- Whether he and James conflict on faith and works (Romans 3:28; James 2:24) is long-debated; most readings hold they address different questions.
A caution about the name
Paul was not renamed at conversion, a common assumption. Acts calls him Saul well after Damascus, and introduces the other name in passing: "Saul, who was also called Paul" (Acts 13:9). Saul is Hebrew, Paul is his Roman name, and a Roman citizen from a Greek-speaking city having both is unremarkable.